Gender-Blind DRR Blunts Response and Recovery (2024)

The reflections and accounts in this paper were drawn from select engagements held during the Sasakawa USA Emerging Experts Delegation (SEED) program on Strengthening Disaster Risk Reduction through Women, Peace and Security in July 2024. The program brought U.S. disaster risk reduction (DRR) experts to Japan to learn about Japan’s progress in implementing Women, Peace and Security (WPS) in the disaster context by meeting with national and local governments, the private sector, and civil society organizations who work on these issues. This paper highlights the delegation’s engagements with academics at the forefront of research in DRR and gender in Tokyo. The delegates also participated in a field study in Tohoku and Noto to meet with local government officials and community leaders affected by the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake, and identified challenges, successes, and areas of opportunity for the U.S. and Japan to strengthen their respective and collaborative gender-inclusive disaster response efforts.

Introduction

Extreme weather is becoming the new normal in modern life. Preventing climate-fueled crises from escalating into full-blown disasters is a must for national security experts, including those in Japan and the United States. With increased disasters come an uptick in defense and security involvement in disaster risk reduction (DRR) initiatives due to the strain they impose on national defense systems.[1]To maximize the effectiveness of DRR investments, the defense and security sector must broaden DRR policymaking, planning, and budgeting beyond traditional approaches that focus too narrowly on state-centric issues. To meet the moment, a human security lens will be foundational in DRR policymaking due to the impacts of disasters on civilian populations and the potential for individual insecurities to erode community resilience and peace. One approach is to adopt the principles of the Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda to move toward gender-transformative approaches to DRR that ensure the diverse needs of all affected populations are met and to foster broader positive changes in gender norms and human security.[2]

The defense sectors in Japan and the U.S. have begun to explore the intersection of DRR and WPS, with varying levels of progress. Delegates of the recent Sasakawa USA Emerging Experts Delegation (SEED) trip to Japan on Strengthening Disaster Risk Reduction through Women, Peace and Security explored this nexus in depth. The group looked at what has been done to integrate WPS into DRR within the Japan Ministry of Defense (Japan MOD) and the U.S. Department of Defense (U.S. DoD), as well as next steps.

Gender Should Not Be Optional in DRR Planning

The World Climate and Security Report 2021 highlighted that global militaries are increasingly overstretched, and the current governance system is inadequate for addressing climate security risks.[3]The Military Responses to Climate Hazards (MiRCH) Tracker, launched in June 2022, suggests that military activities related to disasters are now global. MiRCH also notes that increased natural disasters are stretching capacities and raising concerns about military readiness for escalating climate crises.[4]The salience of such issues for national defense becomes clear when we consider that climate-caused natural disasters can exacerbate existing vulnerabilities, increase the likelihood of conflict over resources, and disrupt governance, leading to national and regional instabilities. Typhoons, wildfires, heatwaves, and other extreme weather may result in mass population movements and economic disruptions, and are likely to pose significant challenges to global security and cooperation, necessitating coordinated international responses.

In disaster response activities, leveraging the full spectrum of human talent is imperative to enhance the effectiveness and inclusivity of DRR policymaking and subsequent Humanitarian Assistance / Disaster Relief (HA/DR) activities. Women contribute valuable perspectives and skills, including leadership in community resilience and resource management, which are crucial for fostering holistic recovery and addressing the unique needs of vulnerable populations. Moreover, given the significant pressure disasters place on human security, an intersectional gender perspective which examines how various social identities (e.g., gender, race, class) intersect and influence experiences of discrimination and privilege, must be employed to ensure that diverse needs and vulnerabilities are addressed in policy and practice.[5]Despite the incredible value offered by considering the needs of diverse groups of women (and men), the integration of gender considerations into DRR is often overlooked. This is true in both Japanese and U.S. contexts, resulting in “gender-blind” or minimally “gender-aware” strategies. Failing to incorporate diverse women’s experiences, knowledge, and leadership in these contexts perpetuates existing inequalities and undermines the effectiveness of disaster responses.

With this in mind, the 2024 SEED trip to Japan explored the ways in which Japan and the U.S. are individually addressing WPS and DRR in policy and practice and considered ways in which the U.S.-Japan Alliance could support advancement at this important intersection. Both countries have started to address gender within disaster scenarios, but have much room to grow. Japan and the U.S. have worked to increase women’s representation in defense and security institutions. The two nations have also applied a human security lens regarding sexual- and gender-based violence (SGBV) that occurs within defense institutions and following disasters. However, an expansion of the WPS agenda to include a more robust understanding of human security and its connection to national security is still needed. This paper explores how well DRR has been integrated into the WPS National Action Plans (NAPs) of Japan and the U.S., as well as the degree to which gender is incorporated in the two countries’ DRR policies and HA/DR activities. As will become clear, both Japan and the U.S. recognize the importance of mainstreaming gender, though their defense institutions face challenges in fully internalizing WPS principles, with cultural resistance and institutional inertia posing significant barriers. The recommendations that follow provide ways to think about human security within DRR planning to generate comprehensive and equitable approaches to disaster management that improve outcomes for all affected groups.

Current Efforts to Integrate WPS Principles in Defense and Security Responses to Disasters

Women’s security is inextricably linked to national security due to the ways in which gender inequality and violence against women undermine human security, social stability, and economic development – all factors fundamental to national security. In fact, Hudson et al. have argued that the security of women is closely linked to national security and stability, with evidence showing that nations where women do not enjoy physical security tend to be less peaceful and less prosperous.[6]As such, including women in national security frameworks not only addresses gendered vulnerabilities but also strengthens overall state security by fostering more stable and resilient societies.

Women’s security during disasters also has national security implications. Women and girls typically face disproportionate impacts during disasters due to pre-existing social, economic, and cultural inequalities, such as limited access to resources, healthcare, and decision-making processes.[7]By integrating gender perspectives, DRR strategies can more accurately identify and mitigate these risks. Doing so would facilitate more inclusive policies that enhance the safety and well-being of the entire population. Moreover, empowering women in DRR activities strengthens community resilience, as women play key roles in families and communities and possess valuable local knowledge and networks.[8]An inclusive approach not only improves immediate disaster responses but also fosters long-term stability and security by addressing underlying gender inequalities and enhancing overall societal resilience.[9]Recognizing these critical intersections between gender, disaster risk reduction, and national security, many countries have begun to address these issues through their WPS frameworks, particularly within their WPS NAPs.

Integration of Climate Change and Disasters in WPS National Action Plans

The integration of climate change, disasters, and environmental issues into WPS NAPs varies significantly across countries in the Indo-Pacific. A 2024 study by this author revealed that only 23 out of 87 countries (26.4 percent) with a WPS NAP referred to climate change, with some integrating climate more robustly than others.[10]In some regards, Japan and the U.S. are setting the pace, though there are still many opportunities for a more robust approach to WPS and DRR integration.

DRR in Japan’s WPS NAP

The Japanese 2023 WPS NAP incorporates DRR in several crucial ways. The plan highlights the importance of addressing climate-induced security risks and ensuring that disaster management strategies are gender-sensitive. In particular, the 2023 WPS NAP is structured around key pillars which emphasize the need for women to play a central role in peacebuilding, conflict resolution, and disaster risk reduction. The main pillars of the NAP that apply to DRR scenarios are as follows:[11]

Pillar 1: Promoting the Equal and Full Participation of Women in All Stages of Conflict Prevention and Resolution, Peace Negotiations, Peacekeeping, and Peacebuilding

Pillar 1 focuses on increasing women’s participation in decision-making processes at all levels, particularly as they relate to emergency and humanitarian assistance and activities by Japan Disaster Relief (JDR) teams. It aims to ensure that women have equal opportunities to contribute to and influence policies and programs, and promotes the inclusion of women in leadership roles within government, security forces, and civil society organizations.

Pillar 2: Preventing and Addressing Sexual and Gender-Based Violence

Central to this pillar is the need to safeguard women and girls from gender-based violence, including during humanitarian crisis response efforts. It emphasizes the importance of legal frameworks and policies that protect women’s rights and notes the need to offer support services for survivors of violence. This includes enhancing legal protections, improving access to justice, and ensuring that perpetrators of gender-based violence are held accountable.

Pillar 3: Disaster Risk Reduction, Disaster Response, and Response to Climate Change

Pillar 3 emphasizes ensuring women’s needs are addressed in humanitarian assistance and reconstruction efforts. This pillar covers international DRR planning and HA/DR activities. In particular, it comprises supporting women’s inclusion and empowerment in DRR planning; including a gender perspective; and preventing sexual- and gender-based violence (SGBV) and supporting survivors. While most NAPs focus almost exclusively on the application of WPS principles within international contexts this pillar also includes domestic ministries’ and agencies’ DRR activitieswithinJapan. Japan’s NAP calls for supporting women’s participation and empowerment in DRR policymaking; incorporating gender-responsive principles in HA/DR efforts; and training aid workers and affected populations on gender and sexual exploitation and abuse, and harassment related to disasters.

Progress on Achieving the Goals for Application of the Japanese WPS NAP to DRR Activities

While Japan’s WPS NAP provides a comprehensive framework for integrating gender perspectives into DRR, it is equally important to examine how these principles are being translated into concrete actions and outcomes in practice. Japan’s WPS NAP demonstrates a commitment to integrating gender perspectives into DRR strategies. The Japan MOD has made concerted efforts to apply lessons learned from previous disaster relief operations to enhance the implementation of WPS principles in DRR. Compared to other WPS NAPs, Japan’s NAP provides more detailed guidance on incorporating gender considerations, some of which has been successfully translated into practice. For instance, drawing from past experiences, the Japan MOD now provides gender-specific “livelihood and sanitation support” facilities in evacuation centers to ensure privacy and protect survivors from SGBV. Security patrols have also been implemented to safeguard civilians. Furthermore, gender-specific provisions, such as feminine hygiene and pregnancy products, are now commonly stocked for emergencies, although supplies often remain insufficient for affected populations.[12]

Despite these advancements, there is room for improvement in the practical application of a gender perspective in Japan’s MOD. Like many defense and security institutions, Japan’s efforts to integrate WPS principles into the MOD’s DRR and HA/DR activities have often been conflated with increasing women’s representation on response teams and assigning women specific roles (e.g., as ‘comforters’ to disaster victims).[13]Such an approach relies on gender essentialization, which oversimplifies complex gender identities and roles, attributing fixed characteristics or behaviors to individuals based on societal norms or biological determinism.[14]In the context of HA/DR activities, such assumptions can reinforce stereotypes, limit opportunities, and marginalize those who do not conform to traditional gender expectations.

While increasing women’s representation is crucial, mainstreaming a gender perspective in the human security aspects of Japan’s MOD responses to disasters could be more comprehensive. As one example, the Japan Self-Defense Force (JSDF) provides search and rescue (S&R), evacuation, and medical support services throughout the lifecycle of a disaster and has made efforts to increase the number of women sent to disaster zones as medical and nursing officers. They also instruct evacuation personnel to keep pregnant women talking during transportation to encourage them.[15]However, in general, the JSDF response efforts do not provide direction for S&R techniques based on the type of disaster and gendered mobility and mortality risks. Additionally, gendered medical requirements extend beyond comfort needs during crises and should encompass varied training for gender-specific health risks that may differ depending on the nature of the disaster. For instance, medical responses to nuclear disasters should consider the gendered health implications of radiation exposure for pregnant or breastfeeding women.

These examples illustrate the potential for further improvement in disaster response through the implementation of a gender-informed human security perspective and represent only a subset of the multifaceted ways WPS principles can be applied to disaster response. A more comprehensive implementation of a gender-informed human security perspective would likely yield significant improvements in disaster management outcomes and overall resilience for affected communities.

DRR in the U.S. Strategy and National Action Plan on WPS

Like Japan, the U.S. has made some progress on integrating a DRR perspective in its Strategy and NAP on WPS, which was published in 2023. The following is a summary of the lines of effort (LOEs) that pertain to DRR and HA/DR in the strategy.

LOE2: Protection and Access

Here the strategy calls for a commitment to women’s and girls’ safety following disasters. This acknowledges the systemic continuum of SGBV, and the need to use data to identify triggers and early warning signs of SGBV. It highlights the rise in various forms of SGBV following disasters and resource competition, particularly SGBV within temporary shelters and internally displaced persons and refugee camps. It also notes the need to address increases in human trafficking and child, early, and forced marriages. The strategy requires a deepened understanding of the root causes of SGBV following emergencies and conflict and requires the provision of support to SGBV survivors.

LOE3: Relief, Response, and Recovery

Within this LOE, the U.S. government requires a gender analysis be integrated into disaster response strategies and prioritizes gender-responsive policies in disaster relief – emphasizing the safety, participation, and leadership of women and girls. U.S. agencies are also directed to collaborate with international partners to enhance disaster preparedness, risk reduction, and mitigation, prioritizing women’s leadership in these efforts. The equitable distribution of humanitarian aid and ensuring that women and girls lead and shape relief efforts from the onset of disasters are also important priorities. Furthermore, Priority 3.1 under this LOE requires the U.S. government’s relief, response, and recovery efforts toincreasegender equity and equality and mitigate harmful gender norms, making it notionally a gender-transformative policy.

Progress on Achieving the Goals for Application of the U.S. WPS NAP to DRR Activities

As with Japan, the realization of these priorities in U.S. DRR and HA/DR activities necessitates a more rigorous implementation and a reduction in departmental compartmentalization. The U.S. DoD predominantly follows the lead of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) in HA/DR initiatives, resulting in the delegation of gender mainstreaming directives to USAID. This compartmentalization within HA/DR contexts impedes effective coordination in the implementation of WPS principles. More concerning is that the lack of inter-agency cooperation on WPS implementation leads to inconsistent military practices. Such a lack of cooperation impedes the internalization of WPS policy and hinders the necessary cultural shift within the military to fully embrace WPS principles. Furthermore, while training programs on gender perspectives in HA/DR exist, they are not uniformly mandated across all military branches.

Notwithstanding these challenges, the U.S. DoD has achieved some success in integrating gender perspectives into HA/DR efforts through the implementation of guidelines for deploying Gender Advisors (GENADs) within military units. These GENADs are tasked with providing expert guidance on gender-related issues, ensuring that operations and missions consider the needs and contributions of all genders. In disaster response scenarios, these advisors play a crucial role by conducting assessments of the gendered impacts of disasters and providing recommendations for appropriate gender-sensitive interventions. This approach represents a promising step towards more comprehensive integration of WPS principles in military HA/DR operations.

Inclusion of WPS Principles in Disaster Management Policies

Despite the significant links between gender inequality, human security, and national security, most Indo-Pacific countries lack defense and security DRR or HA/DR plans that also address gendered insecurities. Military climate response plans should ideally prepare infrastructure, operations, and personnel for environmental changes and support broader readiness for increased humanitarian responses. To be effective, HA/DR plans must integrate gender considerations to address the unique needs and vulnerabilities of all genders, particularly women and girls. The following section is an exploration of how well existing DRR policies and resultant HA/DR activities in Japan and the U.S. integrate a gender perspective.

Going Beyond the WPS NAP: Additional Japanese Cross-Sectoral Policies

Japan’s policies on WPS and DRR are influenced by its commitment to international frameworks such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) – an international document adopted by the United Nations (UN) in 2015 at the World Conference on DRR in Sendai, Japan- as well as its own federal policies such as the Basic Plan for Gender Equality. Such policies have an impact on how the Japan MOD, the JSDF, and the Japan Coast Guard (JCG) engage in DRR and HA/DR activities. However, these defense institutions have only just begun development of internal policies that promote gender equality and women’s roles in DRR planning and HA/DR missions.

Aside from military efforts, the list of Japanese civilian ministries and agencies responsible for supporting gender mainstreaming within DRR contexts is long, and includes the Cabinet Office (Disaster Management Bureau, Gender Equality Bureau); Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Ministry of Justice; Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications; Fire and Disaster Management Agency; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology; and Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. Several Japanese policies have grown out of the work done by these agencies to incorporate WPS principles into DRR and HA/DR activities. For instance, in May 2020, the Cabinet Office issued guidelines entitled, “Women’s Perspectives to Strengthen Disaster Response Capabilities – Guidelines for Disaster Prevention and Reconstruction from the Perspective of Gender Equality.” These guidelines aim to promote gender-equal disaster response efforts at all stages of disaster management, including preparedness, initial response, evacuation, and recovery. Measures include the revision of the Basic Disaster Management Plan to include provisions for gender equality; the dispatch of Gender Equality Bureau staff to disaster-affected areas to support local governments in implementing these guidelines; and event-specific initiatives, such as the deployment of Gender Equality Bureau staff to Kumamoto Prefecture during the heavy rain and subsequent floods in July 2020.

Another noteworthy initiative that demonstrates Japan’s leadership in incorporating a gender perspective into DRR and HA/DR efforts is the development and implementation of the “Evacuation Shelter Checklist.”[16]The list’s main gender-responsive requirements for evacuation shelters are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Summary of the Gendered Elements of the “Evacuation Shelter Checklist”

– Stockpiled Supplies

o Feminine hygiene products

o Safety alarms and whistles

o Underwear

o Pregnant and nursing mother products

o Baby and infant products

o Food and utensils for foreigners

o Privacy partitions

– Shelter Requirements

o Private spaces for nursing mothers and women’s and men’s changing / rest spaces (must be of sufficient size to provide privacy)

o Areas for families with babies and nursing mothers

o Areas for single women or women-headed households

o Space for children to play

o Separate toilets for women and men

o Personal alarms and women’s products provided in women’s toilets; men’s product provided in men’s toilets

o Proper lighting for toilet areas and stalls with locks

o Separate bathing facilities for women and men

o Reduction of blind spots

o Safety checks of partitioned areas

– Management Systems

o Management personnel who are both women and men (at least 30% women volunteer management)

o Gender-equal distribution of meal preparation, cleanup after meals, cleaning, and other chores

o System for suggestions and asking for help

o Regular consultation with women and other vulnerable groups for what they need

– Safety and Violence Prevention Measures

o Lists of evacuees strictly protected and kept private

o SGBV survivor information carefully protected

o Crime prevention by both women and men

o Patrol of women-only spaces, sleeping areas, and car parking areas

o Public awareness of zero tolerance for violence through posters, cards, etc.

o Availability of helplines for violence against women and other problems

These gender-sensitive supply and task inventories for evacuation center management represent a commendable level of specificity and could serve as a model for other nations seeking to enhance their gender-responsive disaster management practices. However, as will be discussed in the subsequent recommendations section, the checklist could be further refined with additional guidelines for mainstreaming gender before, during, and after a disaster.

In addition to the Cabinet Office guidelines, the Women’s Association for Disaster Management was formed by women employees from the Cabinet Office’s Disaster Management Bureau and the Gender Equality Bureau in December 2020. This association aims to ensure disaster response from a woman’s perspective. Key initiatives include conducting surveys to understand women’s needs and challenges during disasters; interviewing local government officials, non-profit organizations, and other staff involved in disaster response to gather insights; ensuring diversity among staff, particularly in the Disaster Management Bureau, where there are currently few women members; and making recommendations to promote support for affected individuals from a women’s perspective and to strengthen the disaster management system’s incorporation of women’s perspectives.

Another advancement of gender in DRR activities comes from the Fifth Basic Plan for Gender Equality, approved in December 2020. The Plan has targeted the following changes: encouraging collaboration between disaster/risk management departments and gender equality departments; increasing the percentage of women members in Prefectural and Municipal Disaster Management Councils to 30% by 2025 and ensuring at least one woman member in all municipal disaster management councils; and providing positive examples of municipalities actively promoting women members to encourage other local governments to follow suit.

Finally, Japan has in part also based its DRR initiatives on the SFDRR. The SFDRR has four main priorities: (1) understanding disaster risk; (2) strengthening disaster risk governance to better manage disaster risk; (3) investing in disaster risk reduction resilience; and (4) enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to encourage “build back better” recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction schemes.[17]The SFDRR, in its initial formulation, addressed gender issues only superficially. Recognizing this limitation, the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) developed the SFDRR Gender Action Plan in 2024. This Plan advocates for the substantive inclusion of women in DRR governance and decision-making processes, articulating its vision through nine Key Objectives:

1. Increase the availability of sex, age, income and disability disaggregated data and qualitative information on gender and disaster risk;
2. Use gender analysis to generate and apply disaster risk knowledge in decision-making;
3. Mainstream gender equality across laws, policies, strategies, plans and institutions for disaster risk reduction, informed by relevant international treaties and agreements;
4. Increase meaningful participation and empowerment of women and gender stakeholders in disaster risk governance;
5. Mainstream gender equality criteria into risk-informed development and disaster risk reduction investments;
6. Increase funding allocations and improve access to financing for disaster risk reduction initiatives that advance gender equality;
7. Plan for and invest in gender-responsive disaster recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction;
8. Implement gender-responsive and inclusive end-to-end multi-hazard early warning systems and anticipatory action; and
9. Ensure access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights, and prevention and response to gender-based violence in the context of disasters.

Given the recent introduction of the Gender Action Plan, Japan could not be expected to have the objectives fully incorporated into national policy. Nevertheless, the SFDRR Gender Action Plan presents a timely opportunity for Japan to leverage the SFDRR Gender Action Plan as a framework to further refine and enhance its gender-responsive DRR strategies, potentially positioning itself as a global leader in gender-inclusive disaster management.

Looking at these initiatives, Japan’s commitment to integrating a gender perspective into DRR planning is clear. The formation of the Women’s Association for Disaster Management and the specific guidelines and targets set by the government show a systematic approach to addressing gender disparities in disaster management. The emphasis on increasing women’s participation in decision-making bodies and the practical steps taken to support and implement these measures indicate an operational framework for gender-inclusive disaster response. However, there is a need for more systematic integration of WPS principles within the JSDF, as the integration of WPS principles in military contexts is still evolving, with cultural and institutional barriers hindering full internalization.

Going Beyond the WPS NAP: Additional U.S. Cross-Sectoral Policies

The U.S. has also established policies for integrating WPS and DRR through several frameworks. First, the USAID’s Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance (BHA) recently published the Strategic Framework for Early Recovery, Risk Reduction, and Resilience (ER4). Given USAID’s lead role in HA/DR activities, this is an important document for understanding the intersection of WPS and DRR policy in the U.S.[18]It notes that disasters disproportionately impact women and girls, stresses the need to consult with them throughout the program lifecycle, and emphasizes the need for gender-sensitive monitoring and evaluation.

The Joint Chiefs of Staff of the U.S. DoD Foreign Humanitarian Assistance (FHA) policy of 2019 (which applies to HA/DR activities by the U.S. Army, the U.S. Navy (including the Marine Corps), the U.S. Air Force, and the U.S. Coast Guard), is intended to revise and consolidate previous texts on WPS.[19]The FHA emphasizes the need to include gender advisement early in force planning to improve the participation of women and other vulnerable groups (including women, children, the elderly, and the differently abled). It also refers to ensuring the safety of vulnerable populations from violence and human trafficking. Finally, it notes the need for a gender perspective to be used and requires that supplies and services be delivered effectively and equitably, especially to ensure women’s and girls’ access to humanitarian aid.

The U.S. National Strategy on Gender Equity and Equality emphasizes the need for gender parity in security processes, humanitarian relief, and climate science.[20]In DRR and HA/DR activities, the strategy calls for promoting gender parity in military recruitment and leadership, integrating gender considerations in climate negotiations and disaster response (especially as it relates to the public health impacts of climate change), and ensuring that humanitarian aid and refugee resettlement efforts address the specific needs of women and girls.

A final policy document that merits attention is the United States Strategy to Respond to the Effects of Climate Change on Women (2023). This document stands out for its nuanced approach to the intersection of WPS and DRR principles, albeit not being specific to the U.S. DoD. It articulates the imperative of integrating gender considerations into disaster response and HA/DR activities, thus bridging a crucial gap in policy frameworks.[21]The strategy outlines three guiding principles: intersectionality, local contextualization, and “do no harm” (taking care “not to put survivors, program participants, staff, and community members at physical or emotional risk”). It emphasizes that women and girls are disproportionately affected by climate change, as well as natural resource and traditional conflicts, which can result in increases in SGBV, adverse health impacts, and higher rates of mortality. It also details existing USAID, State Department, FEMA, and Defense Department programs at the nexus of gender and climate change, and outlines several directives for U.S. government agencies that pertain to DRR and WPS:

• Policy, Diplomacy, and Outreach (PDO) LOE2includes a call to anticipate and address increased SGBV resulting from climate-related disasters, resource scarcity, and environmental security programs and solutions.
• Policy, Diplomacy, and Outreach (PDO) LOE4calls for amplifying women’s voices and work to improve adaptation, mitigation, and resilience.
• Programming LOE3calls for investments in programs that advance land rights for women, including following environmental disasters.
• Capacity Building LOEs 1 and 2require the institutionalization and socialization of the strategy at the gender-climate-security nexus. All agencies are instructed to refer to State Department resources on gender and climate change which provide key talking points, programming tools, planning materials, and other capacity building tools for each geopolitical region, though these are not specific to the defense department.

The United States has made significant strides in integrating WPS and DRR principles through these policy frameworks. The U.S. DoD now needs to accelerate the translation of these policies into practice and enhance interagency coordination to fully realize the potential of gender-responsive disaster management and humanitarian assistance efforts.

A Way Forward: Integrating a Gender Perspective in Japanese and U.S. DRR Policies

The integration of gender perspectives into DRR plans and HA/DR policies is critical for ensuring inclusive, effective, and sustainable disaster response efforts. This integration facilitates equitable aid distribution, promotes inclusive decision-making processes, and addresses the specific health, safety, and welfare needs of diverse populations. However, not all defense and security personnel possess the requisite gender expertise to conduct comprehensive gender analyses in crisis situations—and it would be unrealistic to expect them to do so.

To address this limitation, the U.S. DoD and the Japan MOD should invest in training and deploying a cadre of highly knowledgeable gender specialists. It is also imperative that all defense and security personnel receive foundational training in applying a gender lens to their operational contexts. To further enhance the practical application of WPS principles in real-time disaster scenarios, Japan’s “Evacuation Shelter Checklist” should be revised and expanded into multiple quick-reference tools (seeAppendix 1: Additional Indicators for Enhanced WPS-DRR Checklistsfor revision recommendations). These tools should encompass all phases of a disaster (before, during, and after), and include specific checklists for each type of response (search and rescue, shelter management, medical support, relief and recovery, etc.). Such lists would serve as valuable resources for all defense and security personnel, enabling them to effectively implement gender-responsive measures as disasters unfold.

The enhancement of Japan’s “Evacuation Shelter Checklist” presents a unique opportunity for bilateral collaboration between the U.S. DoD and the Japan MOD to expand and refine such tools. The development of these enhanced resources would significantly contribute to more effective and nuanced gender-responsive disaster management practices across both nations, ultimately leading to improved outcomes in HA/DR operations.

Conclusion

The integration of gender perspectives into DRR plans and HA/DR policies in both Japan and the United States is essential for creating inclusive, effective, and sustainable disaster response efforts. While significant strides have been made through various policy frameworks, the practical implementation of these policies remains a critical challenge, particularly given the varying levels of gender expertise among defense and security personnel. To address this, the U.S. DoD and the Japan MOD could jointly invest in policy improvements, the training and deployment of highly knowledgeable gender specialists, and foundational gender lens training for all personnel. Additionally, enhancement and expansion of Japan’s “Evacuation Shelter Checklist” into multiple quick-reference tools that cover all disaster phases and types of response would further support the practical application of WPS principles in both countries. This collaborative effort between the U.S. DoD and the Japan MOD would not only improve gender-responsive disaster management practices but also lead to more effective and equitable outcomes in HA/DR operations, thereby strengthening overall national and human security.

Appendix 1: Additional Indicators for Enhanced WPS-DRR Checklists

Drawing on work by this author (and her co-authors), the following is a sample list of potential indicators which could be incorporated into enhanced checklists as described above.[22]Further exploration of these ideas can be found in the Gendered Risk Assessment and Action Plan Tool (GRAAPT) of the report “Gender in Civil-Military Climate Security and Disaster Response: Co-Creating Gender-Transformative Approaches Amid the Global Climate Crisis,” which was co-constructed during the “Gender in Health and Climate Security” workshop held in April/May 2024.[23]

Pre-Disaster Gender Considerations

Early Warnings

• Ensure women have access to early warning technologies and systems, including mobile phones and internet.
• Communicate early warnings using systems commonly accessed by diverse groups of women.

Finance / Resource Distribution

• Ensure financial products (credit, loans, and insurance) are equally accessible to all adults regardless of gender, including funding to replace income-generating assets (such as farm equipment).
• Address structural inequalities that reduce women’s economic instability.

Gender Considerations During Disaster

Health (Physical and Mental), Food, and WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene)

• Ensure women have access to sexual and reproductive health products and services.
• Address health concerns related to child marriage (which may increase following a disaster).
• Address the unique health care needs of menstruating, pregnant, and breastfeeding women.
• Train medical personnel on gendered injury, illness, and mortality risk factors depending on the type of disaster.
• Provide protection against SGBV for all people in toilet, bathing, and laundry facilities.
• Provide mental health support for all people, regardless of gender, but especially for those individuals who have experienced more than one disaster.

Education

• Develop community awareness programs that discourage SGBV.
• Develop healthy masculinities programs for boys and men and encourage non-violent conflict resolution approaches.
• Discourage son preference practices that disadvantage girls (e.g. feeding boys more than girls; providing more health care to boys than girls; taking girls out of school but leaving boys in school).
• Discourage child marriage practices.
• Ensure girls have menstrual support (the lack of which may prevent girls’ school participation).
• Discourage families from relying on girls to complete unpaid care and domestic work (which may impede their ability to attend school).

Finance / Resource Distribution

• Ensure menstruating, pregnant, and breastfeeding women have access to extra water to meet their unique needs.
• Ensure pregnant and breastfeeding women have access to extra food to meet their unique needs.

Unpaid Care and Domestic Work Within Shelters, Evacuation Centers, and Refugee Camps

• Contract with companies (inside and outside the disaster zone) to provide services (food production and distribution, cleaning, laundry, and childcare) rather than relying on the unpaid labor of disaster survivors; ensure such contracts benefit women- and men-owned businesses equally.
• Provide cooking, cleaning, and laundry facilities that require minimal unpaid care labor.
• Ensure food- and WASH-related tasks, as well as cleaning and childcare responsibilities are evenly distributed between all disaster survivors, regardless of gender.

Gender Considerations Post-Disaster

Health (Physical and Mental), Food, and WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene)

• Support women’s inclusion in disaster- and climate-smart agriculture and food production learning programs.

Finance / Resource Distribution

• Ensure new government jobs and contracts are distributed equally to disaster survivors, regardless of gender.
• Ensure government assistance programs distribute benefits equally to all adults regardless of gender.
• Increase public services (resist austerity measures), especially those most used by women following a disaster.

Infrastructure

• Rebuild WASH infrastructure that reduces the burden of unpaid care and domestic work on women and girls.
• Rebuild transportation infrastructure to support women’s transit needs and reduce time poverty.

[1]“Global Military Spending Surges Amid War, Rising Tensions and Insecurity,” Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, April 22, 2024,https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2024/global-military-spending-surges-amid-war-rising-tensions-and-insecurity#:~:text=Global%20military%20spending%20surges%20amid%20war%2C%20rising%20tensions%20and%20insecurity,-22%20April%202024&text=(Stockholm%2C%2022%20April%202024),on%2Dyear%20increase%20since%202009.

[2]A gender-transformative approach is one that seeks to address and alter the underlying power structures and social norms that perpetuate gender inequalities, promoting gender equity and the empowerment of all genders, particularly women and girls. This is in contrast to a gender-responsive approach that looks to adapt interventions to better suit the needs of different genders yet may not necessarily deeply challenge existing gender norms or power structures.

[3]Steve Brock et al., “The World Climate and Security Report 2021,” Center for Climate and Security, an Institute of the Council on Strategic Risks (International Military Council on Climate and Security), June 2021,https://imccs.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/World-Climate-and-Security-Report-2021.pdf.

[4]Tom Ellison, Erin Sikorsky, and Ethan Wong, “MiRCH Update: Key Takeaways from Tracking Climate-Related Military Deployments,” The Center for Climate & Security, January 18, 2024,https://climateandsecurity.org/2024/01/mirch-update-key-takeaways-from-tracking-climate-related-military-deployments/.

[5]Maryruth Belsey Priebe and Tevvi Bullock, “Gender in Civil-Military Climate Security and Disaster Response: Co-Creating Gender-Transformative Approaches Amid the Global Climate Crisis” (Honolulu, HI: Pacific Forum), July 16, 2024,https://pacforum.org/publications/gender-in-civil-military-climate-security-and-disaster-response-co-creating-gender-transformative-approaches-amid-the-global-climate-crisis/.

[6]Valerie M. Hudson et al., “The Heart of the Matter: The Security of Women and the Security of States,” International Security 33, no. 3,January 2009: 7–45,https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.2009.33.3.7.

[7]“What Is Intersectionality?,” Centre for Intersectional Justice, 2024,https://www.intersectionaljustice.org/what-is-intersectionality?bbeml=tp-3zSM8cXu3k-DeCWmrukkCQ.jpFRkyVd2Vkux0tAwPYHMMg.ri7gUg8DZaEm_HqbDTn_B1g.lA0kmw1EYo0mmAmYexxeGBg.

[8]“Accelerating Action for Gender Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction,” UN WOMEN, 2023,https://wrd.unwomen.org/explore/insights/accelerating-action-gender-responsive-disaster-risk-reduction.

[9]Belsey Priebe and Bullock, “Gender in Civil-Military Climate Security and Disaster Response.”

[10]Maryruth Belsey Priebe, “Women Parliamentarians’ Impact in Indo-Pacific Gender-Responsive and Climate-Compatible Security Policy Making,” Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs, March 12, 2024, 68.

[11]“National Action Plan on Women, Peace and Security, Third Edition (2023-2028),” Government of Japan, April 2023,https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/100647460.pdf.

[12]As noted by academics met with during the SEED trip who have analyzed recent disaster responses within Japan.

[13]“Japan and Women, Peace and Security,” International Cooperation on WPS, Japan Ministry of Defense, July 2024.

[14]Essentialization ignores the diversity and fluidity of gender experiences, reinforcing rigid binaries and overlooking the influence of culture, history, and individual differences.

[15]“Disaster Relief Operations and WPS,” Joint Staff, Japan Ministry of Defense, June 2024.

[16]Taken from English translation received during the SEED trip.

[17]“Sendai Framework at a Glance,” PreventionWeb, March 18, 2015,https://www.preventionweb.net/sendai-framework/sendai-framework-at-a-glance.

[18]“Strategic Framework for Early Recovery, Risk Reduction, and Resilience (ER4),” USAID Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance, October 2022,https://www.usaid.gov/humanitarian-assistance/document/strategic-framework-early-recovery-risk-reduction-and-resilience.

[19]“Foreign Humanitarian Assistance,” U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, May 14, 2019,https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_29.pdf. This policy supersedes other Department of Defense policy, other doctrinal publications, and the Defense Security Cooperation Agency’s Security Assistance Management Manual.

[20]“National Strategy on Gender Equity and Equality,” The White House, 2022,https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/National-Strategy-on-Gender-Equity-and-Equality.pdf.

[21]“United States Strategy to Respond to the Effects of Climate Change on Women 2023,” Office of Global Women’s Issues, 2023,https://www.state.gov/reports/united-states-strategy-to-respond-to-the-effects-of-climate-change-on-women-2023/.

[22]Maryruth Belsey Priebe, “Gender All the Way Down: Proposing a Feminist Framework for Analyzing Gendered Climate Security Risks,” (Master’s Thesis, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University), 2022,https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/37373596.

[23]Belsey Priebe and Bullock, “Gender in Civil-Military Climate Security and Disaster Response.”